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通讯作者:

颜冰,E-mail:yanb007@126.com

中图分类号:R684.3

文献标识码:A

DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1007-6948.2023.03.023

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目录contents

    摘要

    骨关节炎是以软骨退行性变为主要特征的常见疾病,其发病机制复杂,严重影响中老年人的生活质量。铁死亡作为近年来发现的一种新形式的调节性细胞死亡方式,其发生机制涉及氨基酸、铁、脂质过氧化的密切合作,以及多种通路,如传统GPX4依赖性通路、FSP1-CoQ10-NAD(P)H通路、DHODH-CoQ10H2通路、GCH1-BH4通路、角鲨烯介导通路均可抑制铁死亡的发生。近年来大量研究证明,骨关节炎中存在铁死亡。该文拟从铁死亡在骨关节炎中的发生机制以及相关治疗通路进行综述,以期为骨关节炎的治疗提供新思路。

  • 骨关节炎(osteoarthritis,OA)是世界范围内最常见的关节退行性疾病,其会导致关节疼痛、关节功能障碍和畸形,是老年人慢性致残的主要原因,对生活质量和社会经济产生严重的负面影响[1]。OA可以累及身体的任何关节,最常见的部位是膝关节和髋关节,据统计,全球约3.5亿人正遭受OA的困扰[2]。尽管中西医联合治疗OA已经在临床中开展应用,但迄今为止,并没有任何治疗方式可以阻止疾病的发生和发展,关节置换仍是终末期OA的最有效治疗方式。随着关节置换频率的大幅增长,同时假体寿命短、术后易感染、假体周围骨折等术后并发症的发生率也在不断增加[3]。这就需要在OA的治疗早期提供更有效的干预方式延缓终末期的发生。2012年,被首次报道一种新形式的调节性细胞死亡,即一种铁依赖性的以脂质过氧化为特征的细胞死亡形式,称为铁死亡[4]。目前为止,铁死亡已被证明参与癌症、炎症、阿尔茨海默病、帕金森病、脑出血、创伤性脑损伤等疾病的发生[5]。铁死亡相关基因血红素加氧酶1(heme oxygenase1,HMOX1)在OA软骨细胞中高表达[6],且铁死亡参与OA的软骨退化过程[7-10]。因此,以铁死亡为切入点研究OA可能为今后预防和治疗OA提供新的思路和策略。

  • 1 铁死亡与OA

  • OA过去被认为是一种“磨损”,受累关节上过大的机械负荷会直接导致关节软骨的破坏[10]。目前随着研究的加深,OA被认为是一种退行性关节疾病,其特征包括关节软骨的退化和破坏、软骨下硬化、骨赘形成、不同程度的滑膜炎症、膝关节韧带和半月板退化及关节囊肥大[11]。其中以软骨损伤导致的关节组织退化是OA进展过程中的主要原因[12]。软骨基质中不存在血管或神经,软骨细胞作为软骨的唯一细胞成分,通过分泌胶原蛋白Ⅱ和基质降解酶13来平衡细胞外基质(extracellular matrix,ECM)的代谢,以维持关节软骨的完整。OA的病因包括多种生理和物理因素,包括年龄、性别、肥胖、遗传、炎症、代谢因素,甚至ABO血型等[13]。截止目前,在OA患者和动物模型上的软骨组织中鉴定出多种形式的软骨细胞死亡形式,包括细胞凋亡、坏死性凋亡、自噬和焦亡等[14]。铁死亡在形态学和生物化学上与其他细胞死亡过程截然不同,出现不同于传统细胞死亡方式的特征,呈现特有的线粒体变小、膜密度增厚、嵴减少以及生物化学上的铁过载和活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)积累等[15]

  • 2 铁死亡发生机制与OA

  • 目前针对铁死亡发生机制的研究主要归纳为以下3条信号轴,分别是系统Xc-GSH-GPX4轴、铁代谢异常及脂质过氧化,现对其进行简述。见图1。

  • 图1 铁死亡的主要信号机制和相关防御通路

  • 2.1 系统Xc-GSH-GPX4轴

  • Xc-系统作为一种氨基酸反转运体,有SLC3A2和SLC7A11两个亚基,对谷胱甘肽(glutathione,GSH)合成至关重要。因此,各种抑制胱氨酸/谷氨酸逆向转运蛋白都会使GSH减少,并最终以脂质氢过氧化物的形式积累ROS导致铁死亡。经典的铁死亡诱导剂Erastin可抑制其反转运体诱导软骨细胞发生铁死亡[16]。氧化条件下xc-系统在细胞膜外吸收胱氨酸、半胱氨酸,同时将谷氨酸交换到细胞膜外。进入细胞的胱氨酸可被GSH还原为半胱氨酸。随后在γ-谷氨酰半胱氨酸合成酶和谷胱甘肽合成酶的催化下将全部半胱氨酸转化成GSH。谷胱甘肽通路已被证明是关键的抗氧化防御通路。该轴起核心作用的是脂质过氧化和铁死亡的关键抑制因子谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4(glutathione peroxidase4,GPX4),其将GSH转化为氧化谷胱甘肽(oxidized glutathione,GSSG)的同时把磷脂过氧化物还原为相应的醇,从而达到解除细胞过氧化毒性降低铁死亡发生的可能[17]。此过程可被RAS选择性致死小分子3(ras selective lethal small molecule3,RSL3)抑制。生成的GSSG又可被谷胱甘肽还原酶利用还原型辅酶Ⅱ(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate,NADPH)还原为GSH,形成循环。Miao等[8]发现OA患者的软骨细胞中谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶的活性降低,主要功能酶GPX4较未受损的软骨下降约50%,GSH也出现了不同程度的耗竭,并且GSH/GSSG的水平也降低。Xu等[18]发现相比于创伤患者软骨细胞,OA患者软骨细胞中GPX4的mRNA和蛋白表达水平均降低,表明软骨细胞清除ROS的能力在OA中受到很大程度的损害。Wang等[19]通过细胞实验发现机械超负荷可诱发GPX4相关的铁死亡,且敲除软骨中的GPX4可加重OA的进展。因此,该轴参与了OA疾病的发生和发展。

  • 2.2 铁代谢

  • 作为机体必需的微量元素,铁参与氧的运输、能量生产、DNA合成、免疫平衡及新陈代谢等生理过程[20]。循环中的Fe3+与转铁蛋白结合,经转铁蛋白受体-1、二价金属转运蛋白1的介导进行铁摄取并释放到不稳定铁池,同时在储铁蛋白中的铁也会通过核受体共激活因子4(nuclear receptor coactivator 4,NCOA4)介导的铁自噬途径释放到不稳定铁池。游离的Fe2+催化过氧化氢产成强氧化性的羟基自由基和氢氧根的过程,称为芬顿(Fenton)反应。铁超载状态下,软骨细胞内的Fe2+与不同的过氧化物依赖Fenton反应或脂氧化酶(lipoxygenase,LOX)都可产生ROS,从而触发对细胞及其细胞器上多不饱和脂肪酸(PUFAs)的脂质过氧化,导致线粒体功能障碍、细胞蛋白和核酸损伤,最终导致铁死亡。年龄已被证明是导致OA的最大危险因素,且发病率与年龄呈正相关,多项研究表明血清铁蛋白水平高的人患OA的风险增加4倍[721-22]。由于老年人体内铁排泄的主要机制降低,铁在软骨细胞中容易积累并形成羟基自由基[20]。一项用柠檬酸铁培养牛关节软骨细胞的实验中,Ferreira等[23]发现处理后的软骨细胞分解代谢过度激活,出现胶原蛋白Ⅱ减少和软骨细胞的死亡,促使ECM的降解增多。目前虽然已经在多种动物模型中发现铁过载可以导致关节软骨退化并促进OA的进展,但铁损害软骨的详细分子机制仍有待更深的了解[24-26]

  • 2.3 脂质过氧化

  • 铁死亡的中心环节是铁依赖性的脂质氧化代谢失调,其与转化成磷脂的花生四烯酸(arachidonic acid,AA)及其衍生物肾上腺素酸(adrenic acid,AdA)的量密切相关。磷脂酰基链重构阶段,进入细胞内的AA及其衍生物在酰基辅酶A合成酶长链家族成员4(acyl-coA synthetase long-chain family member 4,ACSL4)的催化下与辅酶A(coenzyme A,CoA)结合催化形成衍生物AA-CoA或AdA-CoA,然后被溶血磷脂酰胆碱酰基转移酶3(lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase3,LPCAT3)酯化为磷脂酰乙醇胺,为脂质过氧化提供关键底物,是铁死亡的关键一环。其中ACSL4、LPCAT3不仅是监测铁死亡的敏感指标,也是导致铁死亡的重要原因。脂质过氧化包括芬顿反应和酶催化两个途径。非酶催化途径脂质过氧化的启动需要从磷脂上的多不饱和脂肪酸酰基中脱去两个碳碳双键之间的双烯丙基氢原子,形成以碳为中心的磷脂基团,再与分子氧迅速反应生成磷脂过氧化自由基。随后磷脂过氧化自由基从临近的多不饱和脂肪酸(polyunsaturated fatty acids,PUFAs)中提取氢形成磷脂过氧化物和一个新的磷脂集团,这个新的磷脂集团又可以起始新的链式反应,促进含PLs的PUFAs的自氧化自由基传播。酶催化的脂质过氧化是由LOX直接氧化生物膜上的PUFAs和含PUFA的脂质。软骨细胞内抗氧化系统如果不能及时阻止自由基的扩增,就会导致脂质过氧化在细胞膜上的传播进而发生铁死亡,但目前脂质过氧化如何导致细胞死亡的确切机制尚不清楚。

  • 3 铁死亡抑制通路与OA治疗

  • 3.1 传统GPX4依赖性通路

  • 系统Xc-GSH-GPX4轴被认为是哺乳动物中对抗铁死亡的主要方式。核因子E2相关因子2(NF-E2-related factor 2,Nrf2)和kelch样ECH相关蛋白1(Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1,Keap1)作用于Xc-系统,是细胞主要的抗氧化系统。细胞外高浓度的谷氨酸或小分子抑制剂如Erastin、柳氮磺胺吡啶索拉菲尼等多种药物可通过此过程诱导铁死亡。其机制是由于抑制半胱氨酸/胱氨酸摄取或使GPX4失活引起的,过多的脂质过氧化导致铁死亡,细胞中铁和GSH的摄入和消耗分别加剧了其表型[27]。肿瘤蛋白P53不仅是细胞凋亡的关键调控原件,也可以通过下调胱氨酸/谷氨酸逆向转运蛋白的关键成分SLC7A11的表达,抑制胱氨酸摄取从而诱导铁死亡[28]。去铁胺(deferoxamine,DFO)是一种有效的铁螯合剂,已被用于各种疾病的铁死亡模型的治疗。铁抑素-1和DFO可以促进Nrf2的表达来维持GPX4/GSH的功能,降低ROS和脂质ROS的水平,从而减少脂质过氧化、减少铁积累,达到抑制铁死亡减轻体内软骨退化[81016]。也有研究表明过量全身铁的螯合并不能改善关节病的症状,这表明铁过载条件下的关节损伤更多地与关节组织中的铁螯合而不是全身铁水平有关,这就提示是否可以通过局部用药来更有效地治疗OA[29]。然而研究发现关节内注射含有槲皮素、DFO的抗氧化制剂并不会延缓晚期 OA的进展,这就提示在OA疾病早期使用可能会更加有效[30]。研究表明GPX4是铁死亡的关键调节因子,主要调节膜过氧化物的水平,进而影响LOX活性影响脂质过氧化。OA情况下软骨细胞中GPX4的轻微降低可能会使软骨细胞对氧化应激更加敏感并通过MAPK/NFk途径促进ECM的降解加速OA的进展[8]。潜在治疗靶点瞬时受体电位家族香草醛1型受体(transient receptor potential vanilloid 1,TRPV1)的激活可以上调GPX4来保护软骨细胞免受铁死亡并改善OA的进展[31]。LOX的特异性抑制剂如Vitamin E已被证明可以减少脂质过氧化物的产生抑制铁死亡的发生[32]。依达拉奉作为一种自由基清除剂,也在很大程度上抑制了铁死亡[33]。随着现代药理学的发展,基于传统通路的中药学研究在OA治疗中也有了较大进展:在脂多糖诱导的OA细胞模型中,淫羊藿苷通过激活xc-系统-GSH-GPX4轴,对GPX4、SLC3A2和SLC7A11的表达产生促进作用,从而显著减少诱导软骨细胞中的死亡并抑制铁死亡[34]。牛膝的主要活性成分豆甾醇可通过调节铁死亡减轻白细胞介素-1β诱导的软骨细胞损伤[35]。黄芪中的活性成分鹰嘴豆芽素在OA中可以通过抑制转铁蛋白受体1和促进膜铁转运蛋白直接降低细胞内的铁浓度,还可以靶向Nrf2 / system xc-/GPX4信号通路清除自由基并防止脂质过氧化[36]。在今后的OA治疗中,这将起到至关重要的作用。

  • 3.2 FSP1-CoQ10-NADPH通路

  • GPX4最初被认为是防御铁死亡唯一的防御系统。然而在2019年,Stockwell发现了一条GPX4非依赖性铁死亡抑制机制[37]。铁死亡抑制蛋白(ferroptosis suppressor protein 1,FSP1)通路是由泛醌(coenzyme Q10,CoQ10)的还原形式泛醇(reduced coenzyme Q10,CoQ10H2)捕获介导脂质过氧化的脂质自由基或通过回收α-生育酚产生抗氧化的作用来抑制脂质过氧化和铁死亡,而FSP1可以使用NAD(P)H催化CoQ10的再生[38]。虽然FSP1的药理靶向作用与GPX4依赖性通路有很强的协同作用,但有研究表明相比于直接靶向GPX4,靶向FSP1可能是触发铁死亡的更安全的替代方案[39]。艾地苯醌等作为CoQ10类似物已被用来考虑治疗与铁死亡有关的疾病[40]。一项关于OA患者CoQ10状态的研究中发现,OA患者的CoQ10水平明显低于非OA患者,其水平随着关节变形严重程度而下降[41]。研究表明FSP1和CoQ10可以减轻患者疼痛、骨侵蚀和软骨破坏,抑制OA的进展,同时研究发现药物的不同制备方式也会影响OA的治疗疗效[1842]。因此该通路将会是治疗OA的有效靶点及通路。

  • 3.3 DHODH-CoQ10H2通路

  • 二氢乳清酸酶脱氢酶(dihydroorotate dehydrogenase,DHODH)是介导线粒体的局部防御系统,其可以通过补偿GPX4的损失以达到解除线粒体过氧化毒性的作用。DHODH作为一种嘧啶合成酶,可以将线粒体内膜上的CoQ10还原为CoQ10H2。特别是在GPX4急剧失活的时刻,DHODH的量会显著增加以促进泛醇的生成,达到中和脂质过氧化防止线粒体发生铁死亡的作用。由此可见GPX4和DHODH在抑制线粒体脂质过氧化的过程中相互补偿,提示联合多种通路的抑制可能会在OA治疗过程中取得更加有效的治疗结果。

  • 3.4 GCH1-BH4通路或角鲨烯介导通路

  • GTP环形水解酶1(GTP cyclohydrolase-1,GCH1)最近被报道可通过其代谢产物四氢生物蝶呤(tetrahydrobiopterin,BH4)和二氢生物蝶呤抑制铁死亡。BH4对含有两个PUFA尾部的磷脂具有氧化降解作用,这可能涉及双重机制:直接捕获过氧化脂质自由基和参与CoQ10合成[43]。叶酸已被证明可以促进BH4的生成[44]。目前GCH1在保护组织和器官免受铁死亡中的作用仍有待更加详细地阐明。角鲨烯是胆固醇代谢中的一种代谢物质。研究发现在原发肿瘤中它的积累可以有效防止氧化应激条件下膜PUFA的损伤,从而达到抑制铁死亡发生的作用 [45]。在缺血再灌注损伤的大鼠模型中,角鲨烯降低了细胞内铁的含量,改善脂肪酸代谢,增加了细胞抗氧化的作用[46]。Kim等[47]发现在OA患者不同时期的滑膜代谢物中,角鲨烯的含量存在显著差异。基于角鲨烯作为治疗靶点的通路有望开辟OA治疗的新领域。

  • 4 总结与展望

  • 尽管关节置换技术已经十分成熟,但保守治疗仍是早期OA的主要治疗方式,然而基于现有的治疗方案并不能完全改善甚至逆转OA。铁死亡为OA的干预提供了一种新的思路和策略,这有助于充分认识该疾病的发生机制并提供新的治疗方案。以铁死亡作为靶点治疗OA,可能会取得良好的治疗前景。目前针对铁死亡治疗OA的相关研究仍需进一步开展和丰富,并且铁死亡涉及复杂的信号通路和调节因子,相关调节因子是否具有多效应调节尚不明确。就药物治疗方面,现有研究多在急性OA疾病模型中完成,长期治疗效果未知。另外药物的作用靶点、给药方式以及治疗时机不同是否会带来不同的治疗效果也有待进一步研究。因此临床高质量的多中心、随机对照试验将是未来研究的热点和重点。最后,中医药作为祖国医学的瑰宝,已经在相关研究中展现出明确的疗效,对今后研究中药治疗OA具有重要价值。

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图1 铁死亡的主要信号机制和相关防御通路

图表 1/1

  • 参考文献

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